“And I
may say, once and for all, carefully weighing my words, that in no part of the
world I have seen stones cut with such mathematical precision and admirable
skill as in Peru, and in no part of Peru are there any to surpass those which
are scattered over the plain of Tiahuanaco.”
[Ephraim George Squier, Incidents of Travel and Exploration in the
Land of the Incas, 1877, p. 279]
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| Cusco, the famous stone of the twelve angles, masterpiece of megalithic stone masonry. [Photo by Author] |
Ever since the time of the discovery by
Europeans of the remarkable megalithic ruins of ancient Peru, travelers and
scholars have wondered at the remarkable workmanship and precision of the stone
cutting and dressing techniques employed by the ancient Peruvians.
The megalithic architecture of the Andean altiplano of Peru and Bolivia is indeed
remarkable. It has the same clear and neat lines that only ancient Egypt was
able to express, and then only briefly over the course of the IV Dynasty of the
Old Kingdom. Yet, very often, what is labelled as “Inca architecture” has little if
anything to do with the Incas, a people conquered by the Spanish conquistadores in 1533 and whose empire
stretching over much of today’s Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile and parts of
Argentina lasted for almost two hundred years since the late XIII Century AD or
the beginning of the XIV Century AD. Indeed, most architectural historians and
archaeologists have now come to recognize in the megalithic architecture of the
Peruvian and Bolivian highlands the legacy of much older civilizations, including
the Wari and the Tiwanaku empires, whose history already stretched back several
centuries (perhaps even millennia) by the time the Incas became lords of the land.
Over the last couple of decades, architectural
historians such as Jean Pierre Protzen and Stella Nair have addressed the
mystery of how a civilization with no knowledge of the wheel and which only
possessed rudimentary copper tools and chisels could have quarried,
transported, dressed and fitted enormous blocks of hard granite, porphyry and
andesite stone with the almost supernatural precision that one can see in the
ancient sites of Peru and Bolivia. [1,2]
Even though their experiments have been able to
shed some light on the techniques that, even with very rudimentary tools, could
have been used to craft perfectly planar surfaces, accurate right angles and millimeter
wide joints, many aspects of ancient Andean stone cutting and architecture
remain unexplained.
One of the most puzzling and debated issues
with Andean megalithic architecture is the apparent vitrification of the stone
surfaces one notices at several ancient sites. If rocks were indeed vitrified, as some historians claim, their ancient builders ought to have possessed some yet
unknown means by which they were able to soften, melt and in some cases vitrify
enormous masses of rock, making it extremely easy to carve stone as hard as
granite and andesite in any kind of desired shapes and angles.
The most prominent features of these “vitrified”
rocks include:
- A
shiny, glossy appearance that reflects light like a mirror
- The
presence of a “layer” on the surface of the stone, where the apparent
vitrification is visible
- Evidence
of vitrification in places where it would be illogical or simply impossible to
achieve a similar level of polish by any other more conventional technique
(such as hammering, chiseling or polishing with an abrasive substance such as
sand or quartz powder)
- An
evident discoloration or change in color and texture of the stone in areas where
the vitrification phenomenon is apparent
- Marks
in the stone or other evidence that might suggest that the stone was indeed molten
or softened at some point during construction
- The
presence of a residual magnetic charge in the stone, detectable by means of a
compass (although it is unclear how this might be related to the vitrification observed,
if at all)
- The
sockets where metal clamps would have been inserted to join together adjacent
blocks of stone are often visible in stones that bear traces of vitrification
(with the sockets or T-Grooves also showing signs of vitrification)
Below is an overview of some of the anomalies
and apparent traces of vitrification we have been able to document at several
Peruvian sites.
Cusco, Qorikancha
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A set of perfectly aligned windows inside the Qorikancha,
the “Golden Enclosure” of ancient Cusco. [Photo by Author]
|
The Qorikancha,
meaning “Enclosure of Gold” was the
most important state temple of the Inca Empire, in the heart of their capital
city of Cusco. The ruins of the Qorikancha survive underneath the modern day
church and convent of Santo Domingo, and are universally recognized as one of
the finest examples of Inca stonework in the so-called “Imperial style” using
large, squared blocks of granite or andesite. Indeed, a number of elements may
suggest an even older origin for the temple, perhaps dating back to the time of
the Wari and Tiahuanaco empires (these include the presence of T-Grooves
designed to host metal clamps, typical of Tiahuanaco architecture but absent
from Inca construction techniques, as well as some controversial astronomical
alignments that might point to an even earlier construction date. [3])
The architecture of the Qorikancha is both
imposing and austere. The interior is divided in a number of rooms facing a
central courtyard, while the outer walls rest on an imposing series of terraces
towards the river Huatanay (now little more than a streamlet), that culminate
in an impressive curved wall likely built for some astronomical purposes. The
stones that compose this outer wall show a remarkable degree of polish. Although
these stones do not bear any clear signs of vitrification, their almost metallic
finish and mirror-like polish is indeed remarkable.
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The beautiful curved wall outside the
Qorikancha, overlooking the valley of the river Huatanay. It was likely used
for astronomical observations and also hosted a solar gnomon called a
Intihuatana. [Photo by Author]
|
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The wonderful outer wall of the Qorikancha
facing Calle Ahuacpinta. It is possible to appreciate the very tight joints and
the indenting between the stones.
|
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| Another view of the outer wall of the Qorikancha facing Calle Ahuacpinta. The horizonal joints are also vitrified. [Photo by Author] |
The outer wall facing Calle Ahuacpinta is
perhaps the most remarkable as it shows a number of features that testify to
the extreme skill of the ancient stonemasons. The wall is entirely built of
pinkish-gray granite, using neatly fitted and joined rectangular blocks. Even
though the vertical joints are rarely perpendicular, the horizontal joints run
almost perfectly straight.
If observed from close enough, however, the joints
reveal something truly remarkable. First of all, each stone possesses a slight,
almost imperceptible indentation, so that even the horizontal joints are never
truly horizontal, but designed in such a way that each stone would be “locked”
in place by means of tiny indentations in each of the adjoining stones. Nevertheless,
the joints are so tight as to be barely visible and not even the proverbial
sheet of paper could be fitted in between two stones.
The amount of work required to
achieve such a perfect fit while keeping tiny indentations between the blocks
would be unconceivable by any modern standard, and can only find justification
in the high seismicity of the region (perfectly horizontal and perpendicular
joints would have caused the stones to slide during an earthquake, while the
tiny indentations would have kept them tightly into place). In addition to this
very peculiar fit between the blocks, the joints (especially the horizontal
joints) appear to be vitrified. A shiny, vitrified layer can be seen at night between
the joints or by pointing a flashlight parallel to the wall. There is no
explanation as to how this level of vitrification was achieved or why. From a
structural point of view, however, the vitrification of the joints would have conferred
the wall an almost indestructible strength making it extremely resistant even
to the most violent earthquakes.
Vitrification, however, is not limited to the
joints. A few stones in the interior of the Qorikancha also show evidence of
glazing as if covered by a vitrified film or layer that reflects
light. Oddly enough, this coating seems to have been hammered or chiseled away
at some point, leaving the stone with a much rougher appearance (why or when
this was done remains the subject of speculation, although this might be a
consequence of the walls being stuccoed and painted during colonial times).
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A dark corridor inside the Qorikancha well
expresses the severe and monumental character of this structure. [Photo by Author]
|
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A partially vitrified stone block inside the
Qorikancha. Interestingly, the vitrified layer seems to have been deliberately
hammered and chiseled away at a later date, possibly during colonial times.
[Photo by Author]
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Inside the Qorikancha, several stones and
niches bear traces of perfectly drilled holes and grooves whose purposes is
unknown (it has been speculated they might have held golden plaques, doors,
hinges or other ornaments). Some of the holes were drilled in the hard granite
for a depth in some cases exceeding 50 centimeters and with a diameter of up to
4 or 5 centimeters.
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A remarkable niche inside the Qorikancha, with
drilled holes and mysterious grooves. [Photo by Author]
|
Cusco – Sachsaywaman
The gigantic fortress of Sachsaywaman dominates
the city of Cusco from a hill. Some of the stones used for its construction
weigh in excess of 250 to 300 tons, and are fitted together with remarkable
accuracy. Many of the stones employed in the construction of the fortress
appear molten, as if they had been artificially softened and fitted into place,
some of them even bearing partially vitrified “scars” suggestive of the
application of very intense, concentrated heat.
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One of the megalithic gateways leading into the
great fortress of Sachsaywaman, above the city of Cusco [Photo by Author]
|
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Some of the strange marks or scars visible on
certain stones at Sachsaywaman appear to be the product of intense heat applied
to the stone and are also partially vitrified. [Photo by Author]
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The most remarkable signs of vitrification are
however found on rocks on the hill facing Sachsaywaman (called Rodadero because
of the round shape of the vast stone amphitheater that was carved into its
summit). A particular rock platform called the “Throne of the Inca” has
perfectly planar, partially vitrified surfaces cut in steps, which also appear
to be heavily magnetic. Many of the nearby stones are also carved into steps,
often forming long stairways, niches and altars.
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The “Throne of the Inca” facing the fortress of
Sachsaywaman, on the hill of Rodadero. The steps show signs of at least partial
vitrification and bear significant magnetic anomalies. [Photo by Author]
|
Even though the severe
weathering of the rock surfaces would have removed or concealed any sign of
vitrification, the rocks (some of them weighing hundreds of tons) appear to
have been cracked and split by intense heat that permanently altered the color
and texture of the stone. Where the stone has been somehow protected from the
weather, vitrification is however evident.
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A carved rock surface on the hill of Rodadero,
above Sachsaywaman. This enormous rock appears to have cracked under the effect
of extreme heat. It is surrounded by other fragments of stone showing similar
cracks and fractures, which must have once been part of some colossal fallen
construction. [Photo by Author]
|
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A vitrified tunnel near the Chincana Chica on
the hill of Rodadero. Not the mirror polish on the walls and on the ceiling.
[Photo by Author]
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An area with numerous caves and
tunnel called the Chincana Chica contains several tunnels whose walls and
ceiling are entirely vitrified to an almost mirror-like polish. The purpose of
this strange network of tunnels is unknown, but their extreme antiquity is
testified by the fact that many of them, including several chambers that must
have once been underground, are now open to the air as they have been exposed
by the erosion and quarrying of the rock above.
Cusco – Q’Enko
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The great cave of Q’Enko. The surfaces of the
altars and tables show clear signs of having been vitrified. [Photo by Author]
|
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| A detail of a vitrified stone surface on the side of one of the altars in the cave of Q'Enko. Vitrification appears as a thin layer on the surface of the stone. [Photo by Author] |
Q’Enko is located on a rocky outcrop a short
distance from Sachsaywaman and is divided in two areas called Uchuy Q’Enko
(meaning “Little Q’Enko) and Q’Enko proper. Uchuy Q’Enko has more of the
strangely carved rocks and cyclopean walls reminiscent in style of the
constructions of Sachsaywaman. The rock surface contains many carvings that might
have once been chambers and corridors that are now open to the air and badly
weathered. The extreme weathering of the stone is even more puzzling if one
considers that it is entirely composed of very hard andesite stone, a rock very
similar to basalt. One particular trench cut into the rock is very much
suggestive of a portcullis system connected to a small canal, with parallel
grooves clearly visible on both sides of the trench.
The main cave of Q’Enko, believed to be used in
funerary rituals, contains several tables and altars (for lack of any other
suitable functional explanation) whose surface is entirely vitrified.
Cusco – Temple of the
Moon (and Temple of the Monkeys)
The little know Temple of the Moon (and the
nearby Temple of the Monkeys) are two rarely visited sites located in the vicinity
of Q’Enko. The so-called Temple of the Moon is in fact a large rocky outcrop
containing many caves where altars and other structures have been carved into
the living rock. The most remarkable of these caves, containing a large
ceremonial platform or altar and accessed through a short descending stairway, is entirely vitrified both on the walls and the ceilings. Vitrification of the
rock surface is so extensive that the stone shines and reflects the light like
a mirror. One can see his own image reflected on the walls and the ceiling as
if they were entirely made of polished glass. Similar traces of vitrification
are also found on a large altar inside the Temple of the Monkeys, where erosion
has left exposed a system of underground chambers and passageways.
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The steps leading into the cave of the Temple
of the Moon. Note the mirror-like reflection of the stairway on the left wall.
[Photo by Author]
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Another view of the cave of the Moon, from
inside. All the walls and ceilings are entirely vitrified. [Photo by Author]
|
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A view of the Temple of the Moon, from the
outside, carved into a rocky outcrop a short distance from Q’Enko. It is
possible to see what were clearly the walls and ceilings of chambers that are
now entirely exposed to the elements. [Photo by Author]
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Ollantaytambo
The great fortress of Ollantaytambo rests on a
steep terraced hill dominated by the gigantic megalithic walls of the temple of
the Sun, guarding one of the accesses to the Sacred Valley near Cusco.
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The large megalithic wall of the Temple of the
Sun of Ollantaytambo. Each one of the six porphyry monoliths that compose the
structure weights in excess of 70 tons and comes from quarries located at a
distance of over 5 Km, on the opposite side of a deep ravine. [Photo by Author]
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Ollantaytambo is most famous for the six giant porphyry
megaliths, each weighing in excess of 70 tons, which form the façade of the
Temple of the Sun (the original appearance of this massive megalithic structure
is still the subject of speculation). Similar to the Qorikancha, Ollantaytambo
shows signs of different epochs of construction, with the megalithic phase
being the earliest and the most refined. Enormous blocks of stone lie scattered
around the summit and at the base of the hill, many of which were later
reemployed in the much cruder construction of the late Inca period.
Interestingly, some of the stones must have been already badly weathered and
damaged when they were reused. Several stones also possess T-grooves for
holding metal clamps, which are strongly reminiscent of Tiahuanaco
architecture.
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Smaller stones were inserted between the larger
megaliths, possibly for aesthetic or symbolic reasons. The joints between the
smaller stones and the larger monoliths are also vitrified. [Photo by Author]
|
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A T-Groove can be seen on a large porphyry
stone lying in front of the megalithic wall of the Temple of the Sun. Also note
the thin vitrified layer covering the left side of the stone. [Photo by Author]
|
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A perfectly drilled hole in a fallen block of
porphyry at Ollantaytambo. Notice the thin grooves and tool marks left inside the hole. [Photo by Author]
|
The cyclopean masonry leading up to the top of
the hill is the finest in Peru, showing a level of polish and accuracy which is
almost unparalleled in the ancient world and gives it the appearance of
polished metal rather than stone. The protruding bosses that one can see on the
surface of many of the stones (and which are also a prominent feature in
megalithic buildings in Cusco and elsewhere) were certainly used for the
lifting and transportation of the colossal blocks of stone, even though one
wonders at the reason why they were left to protrude out of the stone even
after the stones had been dressed and fitted into place. Perhaps construction
was abandoned and the building was left unfinished at some early stage of
completion, but this is hard to reconcile with the degree of polish and the perfect finish of other parts of the
wall.
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Ollantaytambo, the polygonal wall on one side
of the terrace of the Temple of the Sun. The stones have an almost metallic
polish. The large, jambed door visible in the picture above once gave access to
the upper terrace. One can also notice the stone bosses protruding from the
stones. [Photo by Author]
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Among the stones found at Ollantaytambo are pink-red
porphyry, gray andesite, black basalt and diorite. No doubt, the chromatic
effect of so many different colored stones would have been beautiful. The
joints between the stones, including the largest monoliths, appear to have been
vitrified as they are coated in a thin reflective layer. This can clearly be
observed where certain stones have been removed from the construction. Not only
was the edge of the joints vitrified, but the whole stone surface experienced a
similar process. What is interesting is that vitrification was apparently
limited to the joints or the contact surface with the adjoining stones, but is
not usually present on the outer face of the stone (which is polished, but not
vitrified). This would suggest two rather obvious conclusions at this point:
- Vitrification
served some functional or structural purpose, and was not done for aesthetic
reasons (otherwise the outer face of the stone, the only one that would have remained
visible, would have been subject to vitrification too)
- Vitrification,
being only superficial and only in portions of the stone that would have been
hidden from sight and therefore not exposed, must be intentional and not the
consequence of fire or another catastrophic event
One last point of contention is whether the
vitrified layer is indeed part of the stone or rather constitutes a separate
vitreous substance applied to the stone (perhaps as a sort of cement or
concrete).
This last question is not easily answered. Even
though the vitrified surface appears almost as a layer on the stone, it
nevertheless appears to be the result of some physical or chemical
transformation of the stone itself rather than being just attached to it. Also,
vitrification is not only found in masonry, but also in the natural bedrock, in
caves and tunnels.
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A large cliff was vitrified and carved into
steps and niches at the feet of the hill leading up to the temple of the Sun.
The stone surface is polished to a mirror perfection. The texture and
coloration of the stone in the part that was carved and vitrified appears different too. [Photo by Author]
|
Sadly, very little analysis has been done to
determine the composition of the vitrified layer and whether it is chemically
or physically different from the stone itself. Some samples collected from a
set of vitrified caves and tunnels at a site called Tetecaca, above the city of
Cusco were purportedly analyzed by the University of Utrecht, Holland. Microscope
photographs have revealed two clearly distinct regions, the vitrified layer and
the stone underneath. The presence of a transition layer, which is also clearly
visible in photographs, suggests however that the vitrified surface and the
stone body are not separate but are indeed one and the same, although the
surface of the stone has certainly undergone a physical transformation.
Interestingly, however, the chemical
composition of the surface layer appears to be at least partially different
from that of the body stone, as it contains elements not present in the natural
rock samples. This suggests that a kind of glaze composed of mostly silica was
applied to the stone under conditions of extreme heat and pressure. [4]
Even if these results were confirmed with more
evidence from other sites, it remains to be explained how a similar glaze could
be applied to the stone and how the required temperatures (well above 1,000
degrees Celsius) and pressures could be reached and maintained in the open air
outside of a large furnace.
Note: Other vitrified stones are found in the
city of Cusco itself and in the nearby sites of Tambomachay, Chincheros and the
“Zona X” (which will be the subject of a future article). Vitrified stonework
is also found at Machu Picchu, although limited to the joints between the
stones of the Temple of the Three Windows and the Main Temple plaza.
References
[1] Jean Pierre Protzen, Inca Architecture and Construction at Ollantaytambo, Oxford
University Press, 1993
[2] Jean Pierre Protzen and Stella Nair, The Stones of Tiahuanaco: A Study of
Architecture and Construction, The Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press, 2013
[3] Rolf Muller, Die Intiwatana (Sonnenwarten) im alten Peru, Berlin, Verlag von D.
Reimer, 1929
[4] Jan Peter de Jong, Evidence of Vitrified Stonework in the Inca Vestiges of Peru, http://janpeterdejong.weebly.com/vitrified-stones.html
