The Secret Tunnels of Ancient Mexico and Central America

Just like Peru, with its countless legends of ancient tunnels and buried treasure, rumors of a vast ancient tunnel network that extends under much of Mexico and Central America are nearly as plentiful, many dating to a time earlier than that of the Spanish conquest. The Aztecs themselves believed that their ancestors had emerged from this mysterious underworld after a great cataclysm. In Aztec myths and legends, this underground world was known as Chicomoztoc, the “place of the seven caverns”. Maya creation stories also speak of the underground kingdom of Xibalba as a real, physical place, from which humanity had emerged at the dawn of time. Caves and ancient tunnels were believed to be the gates to this mysterious subterranean world.

The entrance to the Maya labyrinth of Yaxchilan, in Chiapas, a sprawling underground complex of chambers and corridors that may conceal the entrance to Edgar Cayce's fabulous Hall of Records. [Photo by Author]

What follows is a list of the most famous ancient cave and tunnel entrances found throughout Mexico and Central America. 

Texcoco – The palace of Nezahualcoyotl

The entrance to one of the many ancient tunnels that pierce the hill of Tezcotzingo. [Photo by Author]

The hill of Tezcotzingo, overlooking the ancient city of Texcoco, a short distance from Mexico City, contains the remains of several monolithic temples, rock-cut stairways and artificial aqueducts. It is believed that these remains date to the time of the king Nezahualcoyotl (1402-1472 AD), who built a magnificent palace on the hill. The unusual megalithic character and severe erosion of these structures may however point to an antiquity far more remote than the foundation of the city of Mexico by the Aztecs. Several cave entrances are visible on the hill of Tezcotzingo, all of which are presently blocked. When Bullock visited the ruins of Texcoco with the hill of Tezcotzingo in 1824, he could still admire the ruins of several pyramids and the great palace of the Kings of Texcoco on the hill, “of huge basaltic stones, carved and polished with the utmost exactness”. Bullock also described the whole mountain as “entirely perforated by artificial excavations”, in which immense riches were said to be buried, although for no amount of money his guides would accept to take him into the underground labyrinth. A tunnel entrance dug into one of the flanks of the hill leads through a steep descending passageway to an underground chamber. The entrance to another collapsed tunnel is visible below the floor of the chamber. It is rumored that this tunnel connects with another blocked passage exiting below a large monolithic basin known as the “Bath of the King”. 

A report of our 2016 expedition to Texcoco and Tezcotzingo can be found here.

Mexico City – The “Tomb of the Aztecs” on the hill of Chapultepec

The "Tomb of the Aztec Kings" inside Mexico City's Chapultepec Park. A V-shaped rock covered with mysterious hieroglyphs (to the left of the picture) is believed to conceal the entrance to a legendary tomb, inside a labyrinth of tunnels said to extent under much of present-day Mexico City. [Photo by Author]

Inside Mexico City's Chapultepec Park lies a little-known monolithic temple that was at some point known as the “Tomb of the Aztecs”. It contains a number of badly-defaced bas-reliefs believed to depict the Aztec king Moctezuma, mysterious hieroglyphs and what are possibly astronomical figures of the stars, the Sun and the Moon. There are legends of a tunnel entrance in the same area where the hieroglyphic carvings and a giant rock-cut serpent sculpture are found. This cave, known as Cincalco, was said to be an entrance to the underworld. According to the Aztec “Legend of the Suns”, it was through this cave that the mythical Toltec king Huemac entered the underworld. Other traditions speak of the legendary tomb of the Aztec kings, hidden inside a maze of tunnels deep underneath the hill of Chapultepec in present-day Mexico City. The entrance to the cave was apparently sealed during the course of the 1990’s, and is presently blocked by a concrete slab. 

Mexico City – The "Cueva del Diablo" on the Cerro de la Estrella

Many legends surround the so-called Cueva del Diablo or “Devil’s Cave” in Mexico City’s Cerro de la Estrella. The mountain, a prominent feature in the geography of the Valley of Mexico, was a sacred site since pre-Columbian times. Its name “Mountain of the Star”, suggests the hill may have served as a place of astronomical observations in antiquity. The remains of a large Aztec pyramid sit on its summit, where every 52 years a special ceremony was performed. During this celebration, known as the New Fire Ceremony, a giant fire was lighted to mark the beginning of a new calendar cycle. On the hill, among the many ancient petroglyphs and rock carvings, may be found the entrances to several caves. Of these, the Cueva del Diablo has a particularly sinister reputation due to mysterious disappearances and a number of reported attacks by what has been described as an “unknown creature”. The cave connects to a vast network of ancient lava tunnels whose true extent is presently unknown, but which are believed to run under much of present-day Mexico City.     

The underworld of Teotihuacan

A view into one of the chambers that are part of a maze of tunnels extending for miles under the ancient city of Teotihuacan. [Photo by Author]

Dry-stone walls and burn marks on the ceiling of some of the caves and tunnels are evidence of a long human occupation of the mysterious underworld of Teotihuacan. [Photo by Author]

The ancient metropolis of Teotihuacan contains three massive pyramids and hundreds of structures. At its height, between the 2nd and 5th Century AD, it was home to an estimated population of 250,000, which would have made it the largest ancient city in the pre-Columbian world – the “Rome of America”. Yet, the identity of the city's original builders is still shrouded in mystery. 

A vast labyrinth of man-made tunnels and natural lava caves exists under the ancient metropolis, believed to extend for tens if not hundreds of miles. In 1880, the French archaeologist and explorer Desiré Charnay was among the first Europeans to penetrate the underground labyrinth of Teotihuacan. In his book “The ancient cities of the new world” he recalls having been led to what he described as the entrance to a cavernous quarry, some two and a half miles west of the pyramid of the Moon. There, several galleries branched off in different directions, leading to vast halls and chambers. Charnay also described an immense chamber with a dome-like ceiling, filled with human remains, which he considered to be the mausoleum of the mysterious race who built Teotihuacan and its great pyramids. Charnay speculated that the tunnels had originally been quarries, and were only at a later point converted into catacombs. Some of the tunnels that Charnay explored were remarkable for their straightness and perfection of construction, with one in particular said to run on a straight line to Amecameca, some 40 miles to the South-East. 

The entrance to the original tunnel system first entered by Charnay in the late 19th Century is presently lost, but more tunnel entrances can be found a short distance to the East of the pyramid of the Sun. In 2017 we explored a section of these tunnels, finding a system of interconnected chambers and blocked passageways that seem to extend for an unknown distance in the direction of the Pyramids of the Sun and the Moon. Reports also exist of vast tunnels under the Cerro Gordo mountain and in the nearby Tlapacique mountain range, where the openings of several air shafts or “respiraderos” point to the existence of yet more unexplored tunnels and chambers.   

  

In the 1950s, archaeologist René Millon speculated that the largest pyramids at Teotihuacan were built on top of vast underground cavities. He even found evidence of what he described as a “huge sealed pit” under the pyramid of the Sun, which he believed could lead to a tomb of immense proportions. Another tunnel was explored under the pyramid of the Sun in 1971, terminating in a clover-leaf chamber. This seems, however, to bear no relationship with Millon’s supposed tomb.  

In 2003, torrential rains revealed the entrance to another ancient tunnel under the Pyramid of the Feathered Serpent. Vast quantities of liquid mercury, mysterious pyrite spherules and over 50,000 buried artifacts were recovered from the excavation, yet no burial could be found. At present, the function of these tunnels is unknown, It is possible that they may have formed part of a secret representation of the Underworld extending for miles under the ancient city of Teotihuacan.  

A report of our latest explorations into the mysterious underworld of Teotihuacan can be found here.

Find also a video from the 2017 expedition here.

  

The subterraneans of Xochicalco

A view of the Acropolis of Xochicalco from the lower terrace. The entrances to several caves and man-made tunnels are visible at the base of the cliff, penetrating deeply into the rock face [Photo by Author]

A map drawn at the beginning of the last century of a section of the subterraneans of Xochicalco, forming part of the so-called "Cave of the Sun". [Courtesy: INAH]

The ancient ruins of Xochicalco sit on top of an artificially terraced hill pierced by a number of ancient tunnels and mysterious passageways. There is evidence on the hill of earlier megalithic structures, including some enormous retaining walls built in the polygonal/ cyclopean style. The Pyramid of the Feathered Serpents, which dominates the Acropolis of Xochicalco, is also built of immense basalt stone blocks, decorated with sculptured panels that may allude to the destruction and later resurrection of the original “homeland of the Gods”. 

In another article we even suggest that the hieroglyphs of the pyramid of Xochicalco may in fact tell the history of Atlantis - Read the complete article here. 

The so-called “Cave of the Sun” is the only one of several tunnel entrances under the hill of Xochicalco that are presently open to the public. The main attraction of this tunnel system is a small, nearly circular chamber with an opening on top. On the day of the Spring and Autumn equinox, a ray of sun enters through the opening in the roof to light up the chamber. More blocked tunnel entrances can be found along the cliff face. In 1791, the learned scholar father Alzate y Ramirez was the first to report the existence of the tunnels or “subterraneans” of Xochicalco. One in particular he describesd as consisting of several “hallways” connected by winding stairways. The Indians accompanying the father on his expedition warned him that a person entering the underground labyrinth in the early hours of the morning would still not be able to find an end to it by sundown, or risk getting forever lost in the maze of tunnels and chambers.   

Mitla's Temple of Doom  and the Liyobaa cavern

A view into one of the tombs of Mitla - Note the extremely fine workmanship of the stones and the mosaic panels on the walls. [Photo by Author]

Another view of the chambers and tunnels under one of the main palaces of Mitla. A similar cruciform structure may have served as the antechamber to the legendary Liyobaa cavern, believed to be an entrance to the underworld. [Photo by Author]

The ancient city of Mitla was the capital of a powerful Mixtec kingdom between the 9th and the 12th Century AD. A sacred city, it contained a number of palaces, pyramids and structures that are today found in varying states of preservation. Mitla is particularly famous for the elaborate stone mosaics that decorate its ancient buildings. Some immense megaliths, some of which weighing in excess of 45 tons, were employed in the construction of the ancient palaces, including a number of curious monolithic columns. 

Several tombs have been found under the main ceremonial structures of Mitla, the largest and most elaborate ones mimicking the architecture of the palaces above ground. The subterranean chambers are built of stone, finely cut and dressed, and frequently contain monolithic pillars and stone mosaics. 

The entrance to a subterranean chamber at Yagul, another archaeological site located in the vicinity of Mitla. [Photo by Author]

At Yagul, a short distance from Mitla, one can still see the entrances to many ancient tunnels believed to be part of an immense necropolis. [Photo by Author]

The first European reports of the ruins of Mitla date to the early 16th Century. One such report by a father Torquemada describes an immense cavern by the name of Liyobaa, believed to be the entrance to the underworld and the seat of a powerful oracle of the dead that was famous throughout the land. This cave was entered though a set of three underground chambers located under the main palace of Mitla, which father Torquemada calls the “Palace of the Living and the Dead”. The cave itself was said to extend for more than 30 leagues underground, its roof supported by pillars. The Spanish priests sealed the entrance to the cave and built a church on the former site of the palace. Portions of the ancient building, including some immense monolithic lintels and columns, can still be appreciated under the small colonial parish church of Mitla. A comparison with the floor plan and orientation of the other surviving palaces of Mitla suggests that the entrance to the underground chambers and the cavern of Liyobaa would be found in the approximate location occupied by the altar of the present day Church.

Other tunnels and cruciform tombs built of enormous megalithic stone blocks are found at Guiaroo and Xaagá. An ancient tunnel under the ruined hacienda of Xaagá is said to run all the way to Mitla, a distance of nearly 5 miles, its walls built of interlocking stone blocks like the underground tombs of Mitla.

The entrance to an ancient tunnel under the old Hacienda of Xaagá, said to run for nearly 5 kilometers in the direction of the ancient city Mitla. [Photo by Author]

Inside another ancient tunnel in Xaagá. The tunnel leads to a large cruciform chamber from where local tradition has it that a now blocked well-shaft in the floor communicates with a fabulous cavern. [Photo by Author]

Read here a full report of our 2017 expedition to Mitla and Xaagá. 

    

The tunnels of El Barreno in Morelia

A 1956 sketch of the tunnels under El Barreno, in Morelia [Source: http://www.espejel.com/] 

In 1956, the excavations of an ancient mound in the outskirts of Morelia, in central Mexico, revealed a curious structure formed of giant blocks of stone apparently fused or melted together. What was at first believed to be a small volcanic outcrop, known to locals as “El Barreno”, turned out to be an ancient pyramid of unknown age. An opening close to the northern side of the pyramid revealed the entrance to an ancient tunnel with rock-cut steps. According to a map that was published by Dr. Jesús García Tapias shortly after his discovery of the tunnels, the main tunnel led to a large domed chamber from which at least 6 other passageways ran in different directions. After following some of the passages for a distance of over 500 meters, it was found that they were either blocked or flooded. Over the course of the last decade, the pyramid and its tunnels have been largely obliterated by the growth of the city of Morelia. It is however possible that future excavations in the area will again reveal one of the original entrances. 

The lost caves of Chalcatzingo

The stunning natural landscape of Chalcatzingo, with the Olmec pyramid and ceremonial center in the foreground. In this aerial picture, the openings of several caves are visible in the cliff face of the Cerro Chalcatzingo (to the right) and the nearby Cerro Delgado (to the left). [Photo by Author]

The most famous Olmec bas-relief found at Chalcatzingo. It shows a seated figure holding a bundle of scrolls or a tablet inside a cave from which emanate curious guts of steam or air. [Photo by Author]

Chalcatzingo is an ancient site of the Olmec civilization located in the Valley of Morelos, in Central Mexico. It dates to between the 7th and 5th Century B.C., with the ruins of a large ceremonial center which included at one time two pyramids, a ballcourt, various altars and sculptured monuments. Chalcatzingo is mostly famous for its rich rock-art, consisting of a number of carved bas-reliefs distributed along the slopes of the Cerro Chalcatzingo. One of the most famous carvings, known as “El Rey” (The King) depicts a man seated on a throne inside a cave. The mysterious figure is holding an object resembling a tablet or a scroll. Another scene illustrates a procession of torch-bearers, also seemingly taking place inside a cave, with more of the curious objects resembling tablets or scrolls. There is every hint that a sacred cave existed at Chalcatzingo, where sacred objects may have been stored. No such cave is known at the site, but a drone fly-over conducted in 2017 along the slopes of the Cerro Chalcatzingo revealed a few possible cave entrances. These are located high on the cliff-face, in a nearly inaccessible position. It is presently unknown what these caves may contain and how deep they reach inside the mountain. 

In this article we discuss the possible existence of an ancient and still undiscovered cavern at Chalcatzingo which may hold evidence of the visit of ancient "Gods". 

The Sacred Valley of Tepoztlán and Daniel Ruzo

The mysterious "Sphinx" of Tlayocapan, near Tepoztlán. According to Daniel Ruzo this rock was artificially carved in the shape of a giant sphinx by a lost civilization he called Masma. Ruzo believed this civilization was also responsible for the incredible rock sculptures of Marcahuasi, in Peru. The entrance to a large natural cave can be seen on one side of the rock formation. [Photo by Author]

Tepoztlán is a small town located some 50 kilometers south of Mexico City. Here, amidst a setting of stunning natural beauty and unusual rock formations, the famous Peruvian explorer Daniel Ruzo believed he had discovered the remains of a “sacred forest” of giant rock sculptures similar to the ones he had himself discovered at Marcahuasi, in Peru, just a few years earlier. These sculptures, which Ruzo believed could be thousands if not tens of thousands of years old, formed a coherent sequence that in his mind described the full cycle of development of present humanity and of the races that preceded it. Ruzo also believed that some of the sculptures were in fact “portals” to a labyrinthine network of tunnels where the knowledge of the ancient races had been stored since time immemorial for the benefit of a future humanity. Many people perceive a strange energy or magnetism in Tepoztlán and its “Sacred Valley” is one of the places in the world with the highest frequency of UFO sightings and other unexplained phenomena.

The Loltun cave in Yucatan

The Loltun cave in Yucatan is a large natural cavern containing extensive layers of human occupation that date back to the last ice age, some 10,000 years ago. It also contains a set of cave paintings attributed to the Maya civilization from the Pre-Classic period or even older. The true extent of this labyrinthine system of caves and passages is presently unknown, although nearly two kilometers of the entire cave systems have been mapped and explored. In 1931, the American archaeologist Robert Stacy-Judd recounted a strange episode in which, after getting lost in the cave, he was rescued by a mysterious man dressed like a Maya priest and carrying a torch. The explorer even managed to take a photograph of the mysterious “hermit”, which appeared in several newspapers at the time. There are rumors of secret passages inside the cave, and of a blocked rock-cut tunnel which is believed to lead into a deeper, unexplored section of the cave where great treasures are said to be buried.    

The secret tunnels of Aké and Izamal

Within the Maya region of Yucatan, early explorers like Brasseur de Bourbourg, Stephens and Catherwood reported the existence of extensive ancient tunnels at both Aké and Izamal. These sites contain a number of pyramids and megalithic structures unlike any other in the Maya region, which may point to great antiquity. A sacred cave exists under the pyramid of Kinich Kakmo in Izamal, where a tunnel is said to connect this pyramid (the 3rd largest in Mesoamerica and one of the largest in the world, with a base of 195 by 173 meters and a height of 35 meters) with another that existed on the site now occupied by the great Franciscan convent of Izamal. Brasseur de Bourbourg explored and left a description of this tunnel in the early 1800’s, in which he mentioned a great subterranean chamber and more blocked passageways built of immense megalithic stones. Unfortunately, there seems to be no record of the existence of these tunnels in any of the more recent publications on the ruins of Izamal and Aké. 

The Maya labyrinths: Oxkintok, Toniná, Yaxchilan

The entrance to the ancient Maya labyrinth of Toniná, in Chiapas also known as the "Palace of the Underworld". [Photo by Author]

Caves played a fundamental role in Maya cosmology as physical representations of the Underworld. At Oxkintok, Palenque, Toniná and Yaxchilan, mysterious labyrinthine passageways built underneath some of the main pyramids and palaces were meant to serve as symbolic caverns for initiation ceremonies related to the cult of death and of the ancestors. These Maya labyrinths contain underground corridors and chambers of unknown function. Over the course of initiation ceremonies, the candidate would be led in complete darkness through the confusing maze of passages and corridors, possibly under the influence of psychoactive drugs. Perhaps the best example of Maya labyrinths is found at Yaxchilan, along the Usumacinta river. The labyrinth extends on three separate levels and contains a number of blocked passages and chambers. At Oxkintok, a labyrinthine network of tunnels exists under one of the main pyramids, known as the Satunsat (meaning “Place where one gets lost”); while the labyrinth of Toniná, although of comparatively more limited extent, is perhaps the most monumental of all, with high corbelled ceilings that warranted it the name of “Palace of the Underworld”. For unknown reasons, these labyrinths were deliberately sealed or filled with rubble (as in the case of Toniná) during the 7th Century AD. It has been speculated that this occurred during a veritable “Underground revolution” during which the old gods of the Underworld were literally overthrown and their subterranean temples either sealed or destroyed.      

A lost Hall of Records at Yaxchilan?

A view of Structure 19 at Yaxchilan, being the main entrance to the labyrinth near the base of the Acropolis. [Photo by Author]

The ancient Maya labyrinth of Yaxchilan, with its labyrinthine corridors, sealed chambers and blocked passageways on at least three separate levels also appears to be a prime candidate for the location of the fabled Yucatan Hall of Records. First mentioned by the mystic Edgar Cayce in his readings, the Hall of Records is supposed to be a subterranean repository of ancient knowledge built in the days of Atlantis. This seems to be supported by local Tzeltal legends that speak of a subterranean “House of Darkness” built in the days of the mythical civilizing god and culture-hero Votan on the Usumacinta River to preserve the sacred records of his race. Teobert Maler was among the first archaeologist to conduct excavations at Yaxchilan in 1903. He was surprised to find several carved stalactites erected as stelae in front of some of the major buildings of the ancient Maya city, which led him to believe that the ruins may conceal the entrance to some immense underground caverns. It is very well possible that the lower and still unexplored levels of the Labyrinth may communicate with these caverns.  

Find out more about the Maya labyrinths of Yucatan and Chiapas and our quest for the Yaxchilan Hall of Records here (part I and part II).

And also a video from our 2018 expedition into the mysterious labyrinth and tunnels of Yaxchilan.

The mysterious cavern of Tibulca at Copán

The ancient city of Copán, in present day Honduras, is one of the greatest marvels of Maya civilization. Its discovery dates to the early 1700’s, although reports of the city’s existence had been in circulation perhaps for nearly a century before then. One of the most curious reports, published by Fuentes and quoted by several other antiquarians, including Galindo, Bancroft and Stephens, is that concerning the great cavern of Tibulca. This is usually described as a temple of great size, carved from the living rock in one side of the hill a short distance from the “Temple” and the “Great Circus” of Copan (no doubt referring to the main plaza of the ceremonial center, near the Acropolis). According to Fuentes, all these ruins still stood entire in his time around the year 1700. The underground temple of Tibulca in particular was said to be “adorned with columns, with bases, capitals and crowns”. A great number of windows, also hollowed out of the solid rock, illuminated the gloomy interior. No trace of this fabulous cavern of Tibulca could be found by later explorers, who additionally found many of the buildings first described by Fuentes in ruins, many having been washed away by the nearby river. Although a vast network of caverns was discovered in one of the hills near Copán during the 1800’s, no trace of the fabulous cavern of Tibulca nor of its underground temple has so far emerged.  

Join us on our next Expeditions

An Update on Upcoming Expeditions

The objective of this post is to share more details on some of our upcoming expeditions that may help unravel the mystery of the origins of the great and still largely unknown megalithic civilization of the Central Mexican highlands. Many of these locations are of difficult access, in remote or impervious terrain. We need motivated people to help us conduct these expeditions on the ground and document these ancient sites (with photos, videos and aerial images) – many of which have not been published before.  

Anyone interested should contact me in private at the address: unchartedruinsblog@gmail.com

Here is an initial list of sites for investigation, with some preliminary information on their significance to our quest for the lost megalithic civilization.    

1) Exploration of the Sierra de Huautla, Morelos

The construction of the walls of Chimalacatlan in an old postcard drawing [Courtesy: Mexicoenfotos.com]

We believe that the center of the megalithic civilization of ancient Mexico must be located somewhere in the still unexplored reaches of the Sierra de Huautla, a mountainous and heavily forested area to the South of the State of Morelos. This is where ancient legends located Tamoanchan, the fabulous “place of origin” of all Mesoamerican civilization – a city founded by the Gods themselves. 

In February of 2015 we explored the mysterious ruins of Chimalacatlan in the Sierra de Huautla (Link here). This is a unique megalithic site consisting of immense stone walls and platforms occupying the summit of a hill. For its cyclopean style of construction, Chimalacatlan has been compared to some of the finest megalithic constructions of Peru, and is of a type entirely unknown in Mesoamerica. The age of these ruins is unknown, but early investigators of the site conservatively situated their origin in the 1st or 2nd millennium B.C. More reports have since surfaced on the existence of more extensive structures in the mountains near the modern day town of Huaxtla. These structures have been described as clearly megalithic or cyclopean, consisting of large stone blocks measuring as much as 2 meters in length. Several pyramids, plazas and large stone walls have been reported on the site, compatible with the presence of a large city.  

The goal of the expedition will be to document and map these ruins, collect evidence for the existence of additional unexplored sites in the Sierra de Huautla and investigate their architectural analogies with other megalithic/ cyclopean structures in Mexico, Peru and elsewhere.    

Additional information from the Mexican National Institute of History and Anthropology (INAH) - Link here

2) The Lost Pyramid of Teopantepec and the “City of the Gods” on the Cerro Colorado

An illustration of the pyramid of Teopantepec, as it stood in 1807 [Dupaix, Antiquités Mexicaines, p.4, Plate 3]

In a previous article (Link here), we identified the Cerro Colorado overlooking the modern day town of Tehuacan, Puebla, as the most likely location of an ancient pyramid known from early 18th and 19th Century documents as Teopantepec (“House of God on the Mountain”). It is possible that the original structure collapsed some time after these early reports were composed, but some remains of its megalithic stone facing may still be found on the Cerro Colorado. Local traditions mention a “City of the Gods” or a “Ciudad Perdida (Lost City)” on the nearly inaccessible summit of the mountain. On the site of this supposed lost city, satellite pictures show a vast rectangular enclosure with what appear to be the remains of an ancient pyramid in the middle. 

The expedition will start from the nearby archaeological site of Tehuacan Viejo, from which a trail leads to the summit of the Cerro Colorado. It can probably be completed as a day-trip from Puebla.   

3) Acatzingo de la Piedra – A monolithic pyramid and cyclopean walls 

A short distance from the town of Malinalco (subject of another article – here), lies the town of Tenancingo and the site of Acatzingo de la Piedra. A monolithic stone pyramid has been recently found on the mountain known locally as the “Cerro de la Malinche”. The pyramid is known as the “Cama de Moctezuma”, and a number of pictures and videos of it exist over the internet. Other pictures show what appear to be portions of megalithic/ cyclopean walls partly covered by forest. 

We will use a drone to map any structures that might exist closer to the summit of the hill, as well as any visible megalithic remains. This expedition can also be completed as a day-trip from Malinalco or Mexico City.   

Additional information from the Mexican National Institute of History and Anthropology (INAH) - Link here. 

4) Mexico’s Marcahuasi – The Sacred Valley of Tepoztlán

A satellite view of the Valley of Tepoztlan, with the Popocatepetl volcano in the background [Courtesy Google Earth]

Unbeknown to many, the famous Peruvian explorer Daniel Ruzo, who first documented and publicized the mysterious rock sculptures on the plateau of Marcahuasi, spent the last years of his life in Mexico in what he called the “Sacred Valley of Tepoztlán”. There, he believed that rock sculptures even larger and older than those of Marcahuasi existed in the mountains surrounding the town of Tepoztlán. He documented hundreds of colossal rock sculptures, forming what he called a “hidden blueprint” or a map pointing to the location of a legendary “Hall of Records”. Since the publication of his book “El Valle Sagrado de Tepoztlán”, the valley has however failed to attract a similar interest to its Peruvian counterpart. 

   

The town of Tepoztlán, with its stunning landscapes and the enigmatic pyramid of Tepozteco, attracts thousands of tourists every year. Only very few of them, however, are aware of the research of Daniel Ruzo. The goal of our expedition will be to document many of the rock sculptures first described and photographed by Ruzo in his book, identifying signs or marks that could point to their artificial rather than natural origin. Because of the easy accessibility of Tepoztlán from Cuernavaca and Mexico City, this can also be completed through a number of day-trips from Mexico City. We will also use a drone to document the rock sculptures from the air and identify any other features not detectable from the ground. 

5) The Mysterious Rock of Apoala

The great 19th Century ethnologist and explorer Hubert H. Bancroft collected the following tradition of the “Flying Gods” of the Mixteca. After a great deluge, two gods appeared to repopulate the Earth: “They made a very sumptuous palace – a masterpiece of skill – in which they made their abode upon Earth…on the highest part of this building was an axe of copper, the edge being uppermost, and on this axe the heavens rested […] This rock and the palace of the Gods were on a mountain in the neighborhood of the town of Apoala in the province of Mixteca Alta. The rock was called ‘The Place of Heaven´, there the Gods first abode on Earth.”  [Hubert Howe Bancroft, The Native Races, Vol. IV] 

Such a rock does indeed exist in the vicinity of the modern day town of Santiago Apoala. Several deep caves associated with the legend exist in the gorges of Apoala, and a number of very curious petroglyphs and Olmec rock-reliefs (one in particular, known as the “Danzante”) are said to exist near the summit of the rock of Apoala. 

We will be looking for remains of ancient structures on or near the summit of the rock of Apoala, which may offer evidence for the existence of a “Palace of the Gods”. We will also investigate traditions of a labyrinth of ancient tunnels in a cave known locally as the “Cueva del Diablo (The Devil’s lair)”.  

Additional information and pictures can be found here.

6) An ancient obelisk and carved reliefs in Axutla, Puebla

A satellite view of the Rock of Huehuepiaxtla (Axutla, PUE), along the Rio Atoyaque [Courtesy Google Earth]

Also in the region of the Mixteca Alta, the village of Huehuepiaxtla (Axutla, PUE) is home to a colossal rocky outcrop known locally as “La Gran Peña (the great rock)”. A number of pictures have been circulating on the internet of ancient carved reliefs and stelae found in the vicinity of the mountain, containing unusual depictions of supernatural beings which were believed to inhabit its summit. It is also said that ancient structures, including a large “stone obelisk” may exist on the summit – although no documentation of these puzzling remains could be found.  

The expedition can probably be conducted as a day-trip from Puebla, with the objective of documenting many of these curious finds and confirm the existence of ancient megalithic structures near the summit of the Rock of Huehuepiaxtla.  

Additional information and pictures can be found here.

7) A journey into the Underworld of Teotihuacan

A large chamber in one of the caves that form the ancient Underworld of Teotihuacan, located a short distance to the East of the Pyramid of the Sun [Photo by Author]

There are reportedly miles of ancient tunnels and interconnected cave systems under the ancient pyramid-city of Teotihuacan. We confirmed the existence of the tunnels and explored a small portion of this labyrinthine network to the East of the pyramid of the Sun in February of 2017 (Link here). Additional tunnel entrances are reported to exist near the palatial complex of Oztoyahualco, near Acolman, on the Cerro Gordo and in the Sierra de Patlacique to the south of the ancient city (these latter apparently carved in a very hard andesite). 

Some of the tunnels are rumored to extend for many miles. Early archaeological reports speak of labyrinthine tunnels leading to vast hollowed chambers and pillared halls deep under the earth, which may have an association with the legendary Chicomoztoc, the “Place of the seven caves” considered to be the ancestral homeland from which emerged the ancestors of the Aztec tribes. 

This expedition is likely to require proper speleological equipment for the exploration of the underground passages. 

8) The mysterious subterraneans of Xochicalco

A portion of an ancient tunnel under the acropolis of Xochicalco [Photo by Author]

A number of ancient tunnels extend under the acropolis of Xochicalco, and there are also rumors of underground chambers and labyrinthine passageways running for many miles all around. Only a small portion of the tunnel system is presently open to the public (near the so-called solar observatory or “Cueva del Sol”). Other entrances can be found on the flanks of the acropolis, which lead to collapsed portions of the tunnel system (some of which we explored in April of 2017) – the tunnels are apparently very regular and are dug through a hard local kind of limestone. During the same trip we also documented large stretches of what appear to be polygonal/ cyclopean walls forming the substructure of the acropolis. The nearby Cerro de la Bodega is also said to contain a number of tunnel entrances.   

This expedition is also likely to require proper speleological equipment for the exploration of the underground passages. 

Link to a previous article on Xochicalco here

9) The Aztec sanctuary on Mount Tlaloc

A 3D reconstruction of the Aztec sanctuary on Mount Tlaloc and the "Ghost Mountain" optical illusion [Courtesy: masdemx.com]

The chief sanctuary of Tlaloc – the Aztec god of rain, was located on the mountain that bears the same name in the vicinity of Mexico City. The sanctuary on the summit, at an altitude of nearly 4,100 meters above sea level, is considered to be among the highest archaeological ruins in the world, and contains a number of significant astronomical alignments, including a long processional ramp and a ruined pyramid-observatory.

A curious optical phenomenon takes place on the summit of Mount Tlaloc during the month of February. Known as the “ghost mountain” (La Montaña fantasma), the phenomenon consists in an apparent optical mirage of a non-existing mountain in front of the peak of Mount Tlaloc.  

The hike to the summit of Mount Tlaloc does not require any special technical equipment, but one night of camping on the mountain is required.  

Additional information and pictures can be found here. 

10) The search for the Cross of Xaagá 

In a previous article (Link here), we described a mysterious megalithic tomb somewhere in the vicinity of Mitla. The tomb is in the shape of a cross and consists of several immense megalithic stone blocks measuring as much as 6-7 meters long. Several black and white pictures of the alleged tomb exist, dating from the early 1900’s, but its exact location has apparently been lost. If found, the tomb would be one of the largest megalithic structures in the entire American continent. The area is also characterized by the presence of rock art and cave paintings dating back thousands of years. 

One of the few existing pictures of the large cruciform tomb at Guiaroo, dating to the time of the 1902 excavations. Each one of the immense monolithic stone blocks employed in the construction measured over 6 meters long with an estimated weight of nearly 50 tons. The location of this remarkable megalithic structure has apparently been lost. [Photo Saville, 1902]

Another view of the same structure after partial excavation, taken at an angle. [Photo Saville, 1902]

An expert guide will be required for this trek, which can probably be done on horse or mule as a day trip from Oaxaca.  

The pyramid of Xochicalco: A monument to the end of times

Does the pyramid of Xochicalco tell the history of Atlantis?

The pyramid of  the feathered serpents at Xochicalco, as seen from the front, with the main stairway facing West. [Photo by Author]

                Does the pyramid of Xochicalco tell the history of Atlantis? This apparently outlandish claim first appeared in the works of British-American antiquarian and amateur archaeologist Augustus Le Plongeon (1825 – 1908) around the year 1880. A fervent believer in the history of Atlantis himself, Le Plongeon believed the Maya area to be the true cradle of civilization, which then spread from there to ancient Egypt and the Mediterranean world, through the fabled lost continent. Nowadays, Le Plongeon is mostly remembered (other than for his priceless collection of early photographs and daguerreotypes of ancient Maya sites) for his fanciful translations of the Troano (Tro-Cortesianus) codex, which he also believed told the history of the destruction and sinking of Atlantis. [1]

Le Plongeon also took a keen interest in the so called “Pyramid of the feathered serpents” at Xochicalco, which resulted in the publication of a posthumous book in 1914, with the title “The Pyramid of Xochicalco”.

Although the translation provided for the glyphs, at a time when Maya and ancient Mesoamerican studies where still in their infancy, is no less fanciful than the one he made of the Troano codex, many authors have ever since quoted his claims to support the most various theories.

As Le Plongeon’s interpretation of Maya writing has been now thoroughly discredited and dismissed as a romantic flight of fantasy (at best), still the question remains. What is the message of the pyramid of Xochicalco? And more important, is it somehow connected to Atlantis?

The pyramid of Xochicalco

                The ancient site of Xochicalco, in the highlands of Morelos and a short drive from the state’s capital of Cuernavaca, is visited by hundreds of tourists every day. Its present name was given to it by the Aztecs, meaning “Hill of Flowers”. Between 650 and 900 AD, Xochicalco was one of the major city-states in central Mexico that tried to fill the power void left after the fall of Teotihuacan.

The major ceremonial center was built around that time as a large acropolis occupying the summit of a natural eminence.  Among the many remains of monumental architecture at Xochicalco are several pyramids, three ball court games, as well as palaces and residential areas occupied by the priests and the nobility. Massive stone walls surround the site, forming the terraces of the acropolis, a clear hint to Xochicalco being also an important military stronghold.  

The "plaza of the two glyphs" at Xochicalco. The name comes from a stela bearing the glyphs "10 reed" and "9 eye of reptile". The plaza was built on a set of artificial terraces and faces the largest pyramid at the site, a massive stepped pyramid, built in the typical Talud-Tablero Teotihuacan style. [Photo by Author]

Another view of the main pyramid, as seen from the plaza of the two glyphs. The very broad stairway in the front was one of the few monumental accesses to the acropolis. [Photo by Author]

Some of the artificial terraces and retaining walls of the main acropolis. A fortified site, Xochicalco occupied a very strategic position along the major trade routes connecting the two Oceans - the Pacific and the Atlantic - across the Mexican highlands. [Photo by Author]

All the main entrances to the acropolis were closely guarded. Guard posts were placed at all the main entrances. Some very intense fighting seems to have taken place at this particular spot, where about 20 human skeletons were found under the collapsed roof of the main gate house; probably the consequence of a fire started by the attackers. [Photo by Author]

Another view of the impressive system of artificial terraces and fortifications leading up to the acropolis of Xochicalco. The summit of the hill was artificially leveled in order to create a large platform that served as the foundation for several smaller pyramids and temples, and also housed large palace structures. [Photo by Author]

The reasons of the fall and abandonment of Xochicalco might never be known or fully understood. Certainly, the city had a violent ending around 1100 AD, with extensive traces of burning and looting. Whether that was the work of foreign invaders or the product of an internal revolt of the lower classes against the ruling elite, is still the matter of considerable debate. In support of this later interpretation, all signs of violent devastation seem to be limited to the elite areas of the city and the acropolis, whereas the lower class residential areas would seem to have been largely spared. After its sudden abandonment, the city was never reoccupied and survived as a ruin until its modern rediscovery.

The building at Xochicalco that has most attracted the interest of antiquarians and archaeologists, ever since colonial times, is the so called “Pyramid of the Feathered Serpents”, occupying a privileged spot on the acropolis. Already in 1810, Baron Alexander von Humboldt was very moved by the ruins of Xochicalco. Even earlier still, in 1791, José Antonio de Alzate y Ramirez (1737-1799), a clergyman, had published a first sketch of the site, accompanied by drawings of the bas-reliefs decorating the main pyramid, which he took for a military building. Dupaix also published many very fine drawings of the pyramid and the site (after Castañeda) in his monumental Antiquités Mexicaines (1805), which made the ruins of Xochicalco known for the first time to the general public outside of Mexico. Notwithstanding the extensive restoration works carried out in 1910 by Leopoldo Batres, the pyramid doesn’t seem to have suffered any major damages from those early times, with most of the original stones of the first two platforms still remaining in situ.

Another view of the pyramid of the feathered serpents, on the main acropolis of Xochicalco. The pyramids is roughly square at the base, with each side having a length of about 20 meters. [Photo by Author]

A view of the Acropolis of Xochicalco, from the top. The pyramid of the feathered serpents is to the left. [Photo by Author]

The Pyramid of the feathered serpents, or Pirámide de las serpientes emplumadas, as it is known in Spanish, is unique in all of Mesoamerica for being built of large, megalithic basaltic stones, all covered in exquisite bas-relief carvings. An earlier stage of construction is also visible within the now exposed core of the pyramid, although lacking the fine bas-reliefs.

Feathered snakes, lost cities and the Lords of Time

                The pyramid has an East-West orientation, with the main stairway facing the setting sun, and consists in its present state of two superimposed bodies arranged in the typical Talud-Tablero Teotihuacan architectural style. It measures 19.6 by 21 meters at the base, and while the lower level survives almost intact, the upper frieze band is highly fragmentary. Only few decorated stone blocks remain of the actual temple, occupying the second level. Several more decorated stones have not yet found a collocation within the partially restored pyramid, and now lie quite chaotically in a small storage area to its side. 

An artist's impression of how the pyramid of the feathered serpents might have originally looked like (After Brantz Mayer, 1847, Mexico as it was and as it is). Brantz Mayer quotes José Antonio Alzate as stating (in 1777) that "no more than twenty years before, the five terraces of which it consisted were still perfect", but that the work of destruction started by some local farmers had left barely the first terrace and part of the second intact.  

The most striking feature of the bas-reliefs that decorate the lower portion of the pyramid is the undulating serpent motif occupying three of its four sides, a total of 60 meters in length.

The serpent is clearly a symbol of Quetzalcoatl, the legendary culture hero and civilizing god, and this is reinforced by at least two attributes: the cut snail glyph, believed to represent the Wind (in the image of Quetzalcoatl as Ehecatl, the god of Wind), and the glyph 9 “eye of reptile”, itself one of the calendric names of Quetzalcoatl. The coils of the snake are also suggestive of the waves of the Sea, an imagery which is reinforced through the analogy with the pyramid of the feathered serpents at Teotihuacan, itself considered to be the prototype of the one at Xochicalco. At Teotihuacan, the marine imagery is further stressed by the presence of different types of seashells among the volutes of the snakes; which are also recalled at Xochicalco in the form of the cut sea snail glyph (itself the most recurring glyph on the pyramid walls).

The feathered serpent motif on the outer walls of the pyramid of Xochicalco. The serpent appears multiple times on all the four sides of the pyramid, and might be interpreted as a symbol for comets and recurring catastrophes. [Photo by Author]

The same figuration appears on the Southern face of the pyramid. A seated figure, possibly Quetzalcoatl himself in human form, is being carried above the waters on what might be interpreted as a boat of snakes, accompanied by the glyph of the wind. Behind his shoulders, what appears to be a flaming temple on an island is hit by a giant wave and submerged by the waters, again symbolized by the cosmic serpent. The depiction of the sacred island is accompanied by the glyph "9 eye of reptile", associated with the Wind and with Quetzalcoatl as the god of Wind. [Photo by Author] 

According to some interpretations, the giant snake is highly suggestive of a global cataclysm. Astronomers William Napier and Victor Clube argued in their books The Cosmic Serpent and The Cosmic Winter that the mythical imagery of sky serpents and dragons, which is found throughout the world, was in fact a metaphor the ancient astronomers used for comets.  [2]

There is also abundant evidence of the association of Quetzalcoatl with comets. In its starry aspect, Quetzalcoatl was associated with the planet Venus, being the brightest “star” in the night sky. Venus was often referred to as the “smoking star” [3], a name that the ancient Mexicans also associated to comets [4]. This makes Quetzalcoatl also an astral deity, somehow associated with wind, fire, the planet Venus and comets (as well as, interestingly, with water).

The other most recurring imagery on the lower band is a curious set of glyphs, appearing a total of 6 times within the coils of the snake. This set of glyphs contains the calendric date “9 eye of reptile”, also associated with Quetzalcoatl, surmounted by what appears to be a temple from which emanate large tongues of fire. Interestingly, a glyph in the shape of a volute, emanating from the serpent’s tail, appears to be hitting the temple as a giant wave. Similar volutes are also to be seen underneath the temple, as if the intent of the artist was to represent the construction sinking underneath the waves.

An enlarged detail of the glyph combination that we suggest might represent the original homeland of the gods, the "Island of the Winds", in its final moments before its sinking. Great flames rise from the temple on top, while the wave-like symbols underneath it might suggest the idea of it sinking or being submerged by the waters. The tail of the cosmic snake takes the form of  a giant wave, hitting the temple from the East. The glyph "9 eye of reptile", inserted within a cartouche, might hint to the original name of the island as the "Island of the Winds". [Photo by Author]

The overall picture is a highly suggestive of a fiery catastrophe terminating in a giant flood that consumed the original homeland of the gods.

A seated figure, possibly Quetzalcoatl himself in human form, is depicted 10 times among the volutes of the snake. The posture, with the legs crossed, and the hand gestures are highly reminiscent of Maya royal iconography, and there are words coming out of the mouth of the seated figure in the form of speech. It is as if the figure was being carried by the waves - that is, the serpent coils – on top of what might be interpreted as smaller serpent or snake-like forms in the shape of the letter S. There might be a connection here with the legend of Quetzalcoatl sailing across the ocean towards the setting sun on a boat of snakes. There is also a curious resemblance with the Olmec Monument 19 of La Venta, dating between 1200 and 800 BC and considered the earliest known representation of the feathered serpent in Mesoamerica.   

Another enlarged detail of the seated figure, whom we might interpret as Quetzalcoatl in his human form. The curious shapes underneath the figure resemble the "boat of snakes" that the legend associates with the departure of Quetzalcoatl from Tollan. [Photo by Author]

The upper frieze, occupying the tablero portion, shows a number of similarly seated features accompanied by the same enigmatic set of glyphs. These figures have been called the “Lords of Time”, as they bear attributes usually associated with the year. There were probably 22 of those, but the sequence is fragmentary, with many of the original stones missing. They all seem to carry a sort of bag, again highly reminiscent of the iconography found on the Monument 19 of La Venta. To their right, is a glyph showing of a circle divided into four quarters, with an open jaw to its side.  There is no agreement about the meaning of those glyphs, but they seem suggestive of place names.

A detail of one of the "Lords of Time" depicted on the lower Tablero. The seated pose is similar to that of Quetzalcoatl in the lower Talud, but the human figure here now carries a headdress with the trapeze and ray sign for the year, and a curious "bag" in his left hand (compare with the Olmec bas-relief below from La Venta). The open jaws with the circle divided in four are conventional signs believed to accompany important place names. According to our interpretation, this section should be read as a list of the cities founded by the gods after the deluge that destroyed their insular homeland. [Photo by Author]

One of the earliest depictions of the feathered serpent from Mesoamerica. Dating between 1200 and 800 BC, the so called "Monument 19" of La Venta shows a figure wearing an elaborate headdress, seating within the coils of a giant snake and carrying a highly enigmatic "handbag", which finds its parallel in the bas-reliefs of Xochicalco. [Photo by Author, Museo Nacional de Antropología, Mexico City]

The bas-reliefs of the uppermost surviving registry, comprising the second layer of the pyramid – or what was possibly the inner temple chamber – are too incomplete to hazard any kind of reconstruction. Again there appear the usual seated figures with their legs crossed, wearing some sort of large hats or turbans and a carrying a staff. The interpretation of these figures as military lords is reinforced by the set of three arrows and a shield that they carry in front of them. Unless, of course, these items have a different ritualistic meaning that we do not yet understand.

Some of the glyphs and bas-reliefs that decorate the upper portion of the pyramid, possibly the depiction of military Lords or deified ancestors. [Photo by Author]

Each one of the great Lords depicted on the uppermost surviving level of the pyramid is shown as carrying a staff of command, with a set of arrows and a rectangular shield covering the chest. The headdress, similar to a large turban, is also very peculiar. [Photo by Author]

 Another glyph in particular – one of the few surviving from the upper portion – deserves attention. It shows what would look like a man with only the head emerging from the water – again more imagery associated with the idea of a deluge.

This glyph, from the South-East corner of the pyramid, shows a man of which only the head is visible above the water. Yet another depiction of a deluge? [Photo by Author]

The conventional interpretation of the glyphs

                Although there is no agreement among scholars on the meaning of the bas-reliefs and glyphs of the pyramid of Xochicalco, two main interpretations have emerged; that of a genealogy of rulers and of a correction to the calendar.

The genealogy of rulers interpretation is quite straightforward in that it sees in each one of the seated figures the representation of a lineage of kings, connected by the symbol of the feathered serpent and each one accompanied by a date glyph. This is a rather simplistic explanation of the very complex symbolism of the pyramid bas-reliefs, and does not moreover account for the hundreds of other glyphs and carvings that do not seem to be associated with the images of the assumed rulers or kings.

The second hypothesis of interpretation is based on a specific tablero located to the left (North-East) of the main access stairway of the pyramid.  In it, a glyph is found which can be interpreted as the date “5 Calli” or “5 House”, which is tied by means of a rope to another date glyph “11 Ozomatli” or “11 Monkey”. This is somehow interpreted as the “pulling” of a date, that is to say, a recalibration or adjustment to the sacred calendar. The pyramid would therefore represent (and was built in order to commemorate) an astronomical conference, or a meeting of the “Lords of Time” from all over Mesoamerica in Xochicalco to decide on the calendar correction – that is, as the calendar had apparently gone out of sync with astronomical observations. This event is believed to have occurred sometime around the year 743 AD, when the pyramid was dedicated. This interpretation was first suggested by Enrique Juan Palacios in 1920, and later supported by renowned archaeologist Roman Piña Chan in his doctoral thesis in 1970.

A particular of the combination of glyphs from the left Tablero, in which the calendric glyph "5-Calli" appears to be pulled by the glyph "11-Ozomatli" by means of a rope. This is commonly interpreted as the depiction of a calendric correction or adjustment, but this interpretation is by no means certain. [Photo by Author]  

Starting from the 1970s, however, skepticism started to emerge in the academic community towards this reading of the glyphs. Hanns J. Prem (1974), firmly denies this interpretation, and the whole subject of the glyphs of Xochicalco seems to have become the matter an archaeological taboo ever since. In a 1994 article, Mexican archaeologist Ruben Morante Lopez goes as far as saying that since then “The majority of studies on the Mesoamerican calendar and the history of Xochicalco barely mention the tablero, and do not dare to take a stance on the very tricky matter of the interpretation of those glyphs”. [5]

An alternative interpretation

Another view of the pyramid of the feathered serpents, on the main acropolis of Xochicalco. The relative position of the different superimposed levels can be easily appreciated, as well as the sequence of the main bas-reliefs. [Photo by Author]

                Here I will propose an alternative interpretation of the glyphs and bas-reliefs based on the idea that the pyramid of Xochicalco contains a mythical account of historical events, which does not by itself exclude other interpretations of portions of the glyphs as related to the sphere of astronomy or to the calendar.

Lower Talud

                 As noted earlier, the cosmic serpent, itself the most prominent feature on the pyramid, can be interpreted as the metaphor for a comet and a deluge (the undulating movement) – the two being possibly interconnected – and might therefore be taken as the symbol of a global catastrophe. The obsessive repetition of the same motif on the four faces of the pyramid could, in turn, hint at the cyclical nature of such global catastrophes, brought by comets or other celestial bodies.

The flaming temple, overthrown by the waves and sinking in the waters appears to be an allusion to a lost “Land of the Gods”, identified by the glyph “9 eye of reptile”, and associated with wind and Quetzalcoatl (as the god of wind). The name of this mythical island might have been therefore “Island of the Winds” if we take the glyphs for their literal value.  This is again obsessively repeated for a total of 6 times on 3 of the 4 sides of the pyramid. 

A deluge seems therefore to have been responsible for the final destruction and sinking of the island of the gods, after it was first hit by a fiery catastrophe (the high flames rising from the temple) possibly caused by the impact of a large celestial body, such as a comet.    

The seated figures (10 in total), could represent the survivors from this catastrophe leaving towards the different cardinal directions and spreading into the world, carried by the waves (on what appears to be a boat of snakes, again reminiscent of the legend of Quetzalcoatl). This company of gods or demi-gods, whose leader can be identified as Quetzalcoatl – the feathered serpent – (himself depicted in a sort of “boat” on the sides of the main entrance stairway), was probably at the origins of the city of Xochicalco, or seen perhaps as a mythical ancestor to the city’s royal lineage.  

A detail of the right Tablero, towards the South-West corner. A rather curious glyph amid the coils of the snake is believed to represent the figure of a "Sky bearer", carrying upon his shoulders a starry sky glyph. [Photo by Author]

A general view of the Southern side of the pyramid of the feathered serpents, as taken from the South-West corner. [Photo by Author]

Lower Tablero

                The frieze occupying the entire length of the Tablero of the lower platform would have originally contained 22 depictions of the “Lords of Time”, each one associated with a specific glyph indicating a place name. This could be interpreted as an account of the mythical foundations of the gods, a list of cities founded by the same company of gods depicted in the lower Talud upon their arrival in Mexico. Each one of these “Lords of Time” carries a peculiar bag, which might be interpreted as a bag containing the metaphorical seeds of civilization, or a symbol related to the introduction of agriculture – itself one of the gifts of civilization brought by Quetzalcoatl to ancient Mexico. The peculiar hat that they seem to be wearing contains the symbol of the year, in the tradition of Teotihuacan, a symbol usually associated with great Lords, and perhaps with astronomy. There also seems to be a snake head coming out from the front. Interestingly, each one of these figures seems to be wearing some sort of “goggles” or “eye-glasses”, itself a symbol commonly found in ancient depictions of Tlaloc, the god of rain. Perhaps more curious, the strange figures appear to be bearded.  

Upper Talud

                This whole section is very fragmentary, but contains depictions of what are usually interpreted as military Lords, each carrying a staff, a shield and a set of three arrows. These might be the lords of Xochicalco and other places, who inherited rulership over the land directly from the gods. The very complex symbolism and glyphs associated with this figures suggests however there might be something else. One interpretation is that the figures on this level of the pyramid have to do with the “gifts” of the gods, which might explain the vegetal motifs of what appear to be crops, the calendric glyphs as well as the other animal figures. So far, there are not enough elements to attempt a satisfactory interpretation of this section of the pyramid.

A monument to the end of times?

In this famous mural by Diego Rivera, in Mexico City's Palacio Nacional, Quetzalcoatl is depicted as a civilizing god, the inventor of writing and of the calendar, the god who taught men how to cultivate crops, to wear clothes and live in cities. [Photo by Author; Palacio Nacional, Mexico City]

                If the above interpretation is correct, then the pyramid of Xochicalco might be interpreted as a monument erected to commemorate the mythical ancestry of the lords of Xochicalco, descendants from a company of gods that were the sole survivors of a cataclysm that destroyed and sunk their primeval homeland, the “Island of the Winds”. This cataclysm appears to be related to the impact of a comet or another celestial body, and there is moreover a suggestion of cyclical or recurring cosmic events. In this sense, even the calendric glyphs on the pyramid of Xochicalco might be interpreted as referring to some recurring astronomic event, perhaps the passage of a comet, which was believed to cyclically bring devastation to the world.

The story goes on with the arrival of this company of gods, the “Lords of Time”, to Mesoamerica, where they founded a number of cities and temples, taught agriculture, astronomy and the arts of civilization to the still primitive inhabitants of the valley of Mexico, and also established a lineage of kings to whom the rulers of Xochicalco and other places in Mesoamerica traced back their ancestry and, ultimately, their divine right to kingship.    

A leap to the other side of the Atlantic

A page from the Codex Boturini, showing the mythical migration of the Aztecs from their ancestral homeland of Aztlan, the "place of whiteness" or the "place of reeds and herons", here depicted as an island in the middle of a sea or lake. [Museo Nacional de Antropología, Mexico City]

                This story, if correct, bears some remarkable similarities to other cosmological myths of a global cataclysm from across the Atlantic, particularly to the famous Edfu building texts.  The similarities are so striking that one might be induced to think that the pyramid of Xochicalco and the Edfu building texts do indeed tell the same story.

The Edfu building texts are a collection of hieroglyphic writings found on the outer walls of the Ptolemaic temple of Edfu, in Egypt, dating to the 2^nd Century BC. No doubt, however, the Edfu building texts were copied after some much older material, possibly dating to the Old Kingdom. The story told in these ancient Egyptian texts is almost identical to the one represented on the walls of the Mexican pyramid of Xochicalco.

This corpus of texts, which has only been partially translated, also seems to refer to a primeval abode of the gods, which was destroyed in a violent cataclysm and was later submerged. The similarities, however, don’t stop here.

In the Edfu building texts, this primeval “Land of the gods” is depicted as an island, variously called “Island of Creation”, “Island of Trampling”, “Island of Combat”, “Island of Peace” or “Island of the Egg”, names that might all possibly relate to mythical events in the island’s history. This island, the original abode of the gods and seat of the first, mythical ancestor of the Temple, appears to have been destroyed in a violent attack by a “snake” or “serpent”, which caused the island to split and sink in the primeval Ocean, causing all of its divine inhabitants to perish. 

According to E.A.E. Reymond, author of The Mythical Origins of the Egyptian Temple:

“The homeland of the primeval ones […] having been constituted by the creators themselves, came to its end at a definite moment of the primeval age. A storm, perhaps, came over the island, during which an attack was made by an enemy pictured as a snake. The aggression was so violent that it destroyed the sacred land with the result that all of its divine inhabitants perished” [6]

Concerning the “snake” itself, which was apparently responsible for the destruction and sinking of the island, she adds:

“He refers to a snake, the nhp-wr, the Great Leaping One, who appears to be the chief enemy of the god […] his feet were pierced and the ground of the domain was split. This is a clear picture of a disaster” [7]

The attack was so violent that it caused the primeval island of the gods to sink and be submerged:

“The primeval water might have submerged the island as a consequence of a fight, and the island became the tomb of the original divine inhabitants” [8]

This serpent, also called in the Egyptian text “The Great Leaping One” is highly reminiscent of the feathered serpents depicted on the outer faces of the pyramid of Xochicalco, which can be interpreted as a metaphor for comets. There is also an idea in the Edfu text of recurring catastrophes, as the text explicitly references multiple cycles of creation and resurrection of the primeval island.

The “company of gods” that survived the destruction and sinking of the primeval island of creation (otherwise known from other Egyptian sources as the Shemsu-Hor – the companions of Horus), seems to have played a role in the rebirth of civilization after the catastrophe which is very similar to the one attributed in Mesoamerica to Quetzalcoatl and his companions.

There is also another striking analogy in the names used to describe the new homeland of the gods after the catastrophe. The Edfu text mentions that reeds were all that survived of the primeval island of the gods after its sinking, and that the island itself was covered in reeds:

“The beginning of the first Edfu record does not tell us that the new generation of creators arriving in the island would perceive the island itself when the sun shone once more on the primeval waters. It is stated that they saw only the reeds on the surface of the water” [9]

And also:

“The Edfu cosmogonical records begin with a picture of the primeval island where the gods were believed to have lived first…which, in part, was covered with reeds” [10]

Interestingly, the mythical capital of Quetzalcoatl after his arrival in Mexico was called Tollan, which in Nahuatl means “the place of reeds”. Tollan was considered an ancestral place of origin for the civilizations of Mexico, and was the legendary capital of the Toltecs (meaning “people of the reeds”). The very name of Quetzalcoatl is often associated with the glyph “Ce Acatl”, or “1 reed”, with the reed glyph appearing several times on the pyramid of Xochicalco itself.

In Aztec myths, the original homeland of the Aztec people is named “Aztlan”, a name somehow associated with the color white, whose literal meaning is “place of herons and reeds”. One might also find interesting, and it is certainly matter of speculation, that while the ancient Egyptians located the homeland of the Gods in the far West, Quetzalcoatl was believed to have come to America from the East, that is from across the Atlantic. It is on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico that the earliest known Mesoamerican civilization, the Olmecs, developed, and it is with the Olmecs that the earliest depictions of the feathered serpents are found.

Perhaps the pyramid of Xochicalco does not tell the same story as Plato’s Atlantis, but the parallels with the ancient Egyptian myths from across the Atlantic, and the Mesoamerican legend of Quetzalcoatl as a civilizing god who came from the East, all point to a common belief in a primeval homeland of the gods, that was destroyed and sank in a time beyond recorded history, from which civilization spread to both the Old and the New World.

A panoramic view of the Northern side of the pyramid of the feathered serpents at Xochicalco. [Photo by Author]

References:

[1] A good online biography of Augustus Le Plongeon can be found at the following website: http://maya.csueastbay.edu/archaeoplanet/LgdPage/LepKehoe.htm

[2] Victor Clube, Bill Napier, The Cosmic Serpent, Faber & Faber, 1982

[3] For instance, Venus is depicted as a “smoking star” in the Codex Telleriano-Remensis, as well as in the Songs of Dzitbalche, suggesting a connection between Venus and Comets. See Susan Milbraith, Star Gods of the Maya: Astronomy in Art, Folklore and Calendar, University of Texas, 1999

[4] in Nahuatl, “Citlalin popoca”. Source: Remi Simeón, Diccionario de la lengua Nahuatl o Mexicana, 17^th edition, México, 2004 (1^st Spanish edition 1977)

[5] Rubén Morante López, El Templo de las Serpientes Emplumadas de Xochicalco, no. 94, Universidad Veracruzana (1994), accessed online: http://cdigital.uv.mx/bitstream/123456789/1232/2/199491P113.pdf

[6] E.A.E. Reymond, The Mythical Origin of the Egyptian Temple, Manchester University Press, 1969, p. 113-114

[7] Ibid., p. 113

[8] Ibid., p. 109  

[9] Ibid., p. 109

[10] Ibid., p. 59